Which navigation method requires knowledge of both time and distance calculations?

The correct answer is based on the principles of dead reckoning, which is a navigation method that involves calculating one's current position by using a previously determined position and then estimating the future position based on speed, heading, and time. This technique integrates both time and distance calculations to track the aircraft's movement across the ground.

When flying under dead reckoning, pilots must accurately determine ground speed and maintain a consistent heading for a specified amount of time. By multiplying speed by time, pilots can calculate the distance traveled. Their ability to keep track of these metrics is crucial, as it allows them to estimate their position at any given moment and navigate effectively without relying on external references.

In contrast, visual flight rules rely heavily on the pilot's ability to visually navigate using landmarks, and thus do not require these specific time and distance calculations. Ground reference navigation similarly relies on observable features on the ground. Instrument flight rules focus on navigation using instruments, which may not directly necessitate time and distance calculations as they can rely on established airways and navigation aids.